Bee Balm (Monarda fistulosa and Monarda didyma)
Exploring the many gifts offered by Bee Balm the in the context of Food Forest Design. This is Installment #37 of the Stacking Functions in the Garden, Food Forest and Medicine Cabinet series.
This post serves as the 37th post which is part of the above mentioned (Stacking Functions in the Garden, Food Forest and Medicine Cabinet : The Regenerative Way From Seed To Apothecary series).
Bee balm is the common name of both Monarda didyma, which has red flowers, or Monarda fistulosa, which can have lavender, pink, or white flowers. M. didyma and M. fistulosa are two of the most popular species among the seventeen species and over fifty cultivars of the plant. One or more of them are found nearly everywhere on Turtle Island (aka in North America).
In addition to bee balm, Monarda, wild bergamot, and Oswego tea are some of the common names of Monarda didyma. Each name has a very good reason why it was used: Bee balm, since the bees love it; bergamot due to its aroma, which is reminiscent of the bergamot orange; Oswego tea because Indigenous people in the Oswego, NY region used it for teas.
From my experience, the M. didyma and Monarda fistulosa can be used interchangeably. Here in Ontario, the Chippewa, Wendat and Algonquin peoples use M. fistulosa and so that’s the one I’ve used. But I know further east, M. didyma is used for similar purposes, probably because it’s more abundant.
Known as Sasap-kwanins to the Anishinaabemowin (Ojibwe/Chippewa) people, Yeton’kwanonhsatáhkwa to the Mohawk people, Wahpe Washtemém to the Lakota people and known as Tsakus tawirat to the Pawnee people.
The Monarda plant was named in English for the Spanish physician and botanist Dr. Nicolas Monardes of Seville Spain (DOB was 1493 – 1588) (Bremness, 1994). Monardes wrote the book Joyful News – Botany of the New World (North America).
Common Name: Bee balm, sweet leaf, Oswego tea, wild oregano, horsemint, wild bergamot, prairie bergamot, oregano de la sierra.
Family: Labiatae
Part used for medicine/food: leaves, flowers, and stems (the entire above-ground plant or “aerial parts”)
Constituents:
medicinal compounds: carvacrol, thymol, thymoquinone, rosmarinic acid, Limonene, hydroxycinnamic acids, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin-7-O-glucosides, acacetin-7-rutinoside, isosacuranetine-7-rutinoside, dihydroxyflavone 8-C-glucoside, and 5-hydroxyflavone and various flavonoids (such as rutin, hyperoside, quercetin, quercitrin, naringin, naringenin and luteolin).
Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus , Iron, Zinc , Manganese , Copper and Selenium.
Medicinal actions:
Aromatic, diaphoretic, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, emmenagogue, antispasmodic, carminative, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, expectorant, bitter tonic, sedative, local anesthetic.
Bee balm has a large concentration of thymol.
Thymol is a phenol used in many commercial mouthwashes for its antibacterial properties.
Carvacrol is another phenol that along with thymol is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and contributes to respiratory health. Rosmaric acid is a reputable antioxidant, antibacterial, antiallergenic and anti-inflammatory. Limonene is a monoterpene that is also antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, a decongestant and an expectorant. The other element 1,8 cineole is an oxide that is antiviral and contributes to respiratory health.
Essential oils rich in thymol and carvacrol, helps with cardiovascular issues, exhibiting significant antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antispasmodic properties, historically used by Indigenous peoples for colds, wounds, and digestive issues, with modern research supporting its potential against bacteria, fungi, inflammation, and as a general nervous system tonic and mosquito repellent.
Cold Hardiness:
Monarda fistulosa: 4-10
Monarda didyma: 3-9
Native Range:
Monarda fistulosa has a vast native range across North America, spanning most of the U.S. and Canada from Quebec west to British Columbia and south into Mexico, excluding Florida and California
Monarda didyma (Scarlet Bee Balm) is native to eastern North America, naturally occurring from Maine west to Minnesota and Ontario, Quebec, and south along the Appalachian Mountains to Georgia and Tennessee.
Growth Form:
Forms upright, clump-forming mounds or colonies via rhizomes, growing 2-5 feet tall with square stems, aromatic gray-green leaves, and terminal clusters of lavender to pink to scarlet red, tubular flowers from mid-to-late summer.
Reproduction:
In the wild, Bee balm primarily reproduces through vegetative propagation (clonal division) and also through sexual reproduction (seeds).
Habitat and Ecological Niche:
The ecological niche of Monarda fistulosa (wild bergamot) is defined by its adaptability to a wide range of open or semi-shaded terrestrial habitats across North America and its crucial role as a major pollinator support plant. She spreads well where healthy bird populations exist as they eat and deposit the seeds (some of them sprout).
The ecological niche of Monarda didyma (scarlet beebalm or Oswego tea) is more characterized within its native range of Eastern North America, primarily thriving in moist, rich soils and areas with ample moisture. Similarly, this species thrives when small birds are present in great numbers to spread their seeds.
Flowering and Pollination:
Flowering
Bloom Time: Typically mid-to-late summer, from June through September.
Flower Structure: Showy, 2-3 inch wide heads with fringed, tubular flowers that come in white, pink, lavender, purple or red.
Pollination
Key Pollinators: A major draw for native bees (bumblebees, leafcutters), honeybees, butterflies, moths (especially hawk moths), butterflies and hummingbirds.
Attraction: The tubular flowers are perfectly suited for long-tongued pollinators seeking nectar, while the abundant pollen attracts various bees and solitary beneficial predatory wasps.
Pollination Process: occurs during blossom opening times ( typically 8 AM–8 PM).
After Flowering:
Seed Production: After petals fall, seeds form in the dried heads, which can be left for birds (like goldfinches) and/or harvested for saving seed.
Health Benefits of Bee Balm:
This perennial flowering herb offers many health benefits, including: Aromatic, diaphoretic, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, emmenagogue, antispasmodic, carminative, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, expectorant, bitter tonic, sedative, local anesthetic benefits.
Modern herbalists often use Wild Bergamot for its antimicrobial effects. Modern research has found that Wild Bergamot extract has inhibitory effects against harmful fungi and bacteria species such as Escherichia coli, Erwinia amylovora, and Candida albicans. Wild Bergamot’s antibacterial properties also treat antibiotic-resistant middle ear infections in children.
One of the compounds they found in Wild Bergamot essential oil is thymoquinone. A 2022 review of several studies found that this compound, found in Wild Bergamot, Thyme, and several other plants, also has the potential to be an important therapeutic agent against pancreatic cancer.
This same compound, thymoquinone, also gives Wild Bergamot antiviral properties. Researchers believe that it may be effective against herpes and influenza.
A 2023 study also supported Wild Bergamots’ potential anti-inflammatory effects. Researchers found that Wild Bergamot extract effectively treated inflammation in mouse granulosa cells.
Bee balm is antimicrobial and soothing, so it’s often used to treat colds and flu. It also has a soothing effect on the digestive tract and helps to treat indigestion, bloating and nausea. It’s more than just soothing on the digestive system and its antispasmodic properties also help it treat menstrual cramps as well as coughs.
Externally, it’s used to treat scrapes, stings and rashes.
Bee balm is also nervine, that has a gentle calming effect on the nervous system, similar to lemon balm. It’s used to treat anxiety and stress, especially in children.
Monarda has a spicy, oregano smell when you rub its leaves. As noted above, this means these volatile oils are especially beneficial for colds, flus, sinus and lung congestion, and sore throats.
It is also used internally for indigestion, intestinal cramps, nausea, flatulence, fevers, bronchitis, whooping cough, chronic and systemic candida infections, urinary tract infections, nervous tension, and a general relaxant.
According to Sharol Tilgner, “It is beneficial for low-grade continual fevers with septic conditions, especially when related to viral infections.” It is also specific for lung infections. Monarda tea should be served hot to alleviate lung congestion. It can also be inhaled as a steam.
Topically it is used as a gargle for sore throats; its spicy nature can have an analgesic effect and a strong infusion helps to combat bacteria responsible and alleviates discomfort. It can also be used as a poultice for burns, wounds and rheumatic pains.
History and Cultural Relevance of Bee Balm:
Being native to Turtle Island (aka North America), Monarda was well known by many different Indigenous cultures who all used it for similar conditions including fevers, coughs, congestion, infection, insect and venomous bites, and also as a food preservative and flavoring for meats.
Monarda fistulosa was an important medicine plant and was seen as a valuable plant kin to many indigenous peoples, including (but not limited to the Blackfoot, Oneida, Oswego, Menominee, Ojibwa, Tewa, and Winnebago.
The Tewa people cooked Wild bergamot with meat.
The people of the Haudenosaunee confederacy used the plant in the making of a beverage and also used the plant for a wide variety of medicinal uses. The Ojibwe put a wad of chewed leaves of this plant into their nostrils to relieve headache. The tops of the plant were dried and used as a sternutatory for the relief of colds. The leaves were placed in warm water baths for babies. The Flambeau Ojibwe gathered and dried the whole plant, boiling it in a vessel to obtain the volatile oil to inhale to cure catarrh and bronchial affections. The Menomini also used this plant as a remedy for catarrh, steeping the leaves and inflorescences in a tea. The Meskwaki used this plant in combination with other plants to relieve colds. The Hocak (Winnebago) used wild bergamot in their sweat bath and inhaled the fumes to cure colds. A decoction of boiled leaves was used as a cure for eruptions on the face. The Cherokee made a warm poultice of the plant to relieve a headache.
The Teton Dakota boiled together the leaves and flowers as a cure for abdominal pains. The Blackfoot made a tea from the blossoms and leaves to cure stomach pains. They also applied boiled leaves to the pustules of acne. The Tewa dried the plant and ground it into a powder that was rubbed over the head to cure headaches, over the body to cure fever, and as a remedy for sore eyes and colds. Early European settlers used it as a diaphoretic and carminative, and occasionally employed it for the relief of flatulent colic, nausea and vomiting.
The red flowering bee balm, M. didyma, was part of a blend of native plants that were made into “Liberty Tea” that colonists drank in protest of the teas from England after the Boston Tea Party. M. fistulosa, the purple flowering variety gets the name “wild bergamot” from its similar fragrance to bergamot citrus tree (Citrus bergamia). M. fistulosa was used traditionally to induce a sweat during Native American sweat lodge ceremonies.
In the language of flowers, Monarda symbolizes compassion and sympathy.
When the seeds were sent across the Atlantic and grown, it was given the names of golden melissa and Indian nettle.
Functions In The Wilderness and in the Food Forest:
Ecological Functions
Birds like American Goldfinches, sparrows, and chickadees enjoy eating bee balm seeds, especially when left to dry in the garden, turning your flowers into a natural winter bird feeder that also attracts hummingbirds and butterflies in warmer months.
Guild Profile:
Bee balm serves primarily as a pollinator attractor and a beneficial, multi-use herb.
It helps build a self-sustaining ecosystem by drawing beneficial insects, ensuring better pollination of surrounding plants, and offering medicinal and culinary uses.
Primary Role
Pollinator Attractor: Attracts a wide range of pollinators including bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, beneficial wasps, and hawk moths, which helps ensure the pollination of fruit and vegetable crops.
Secondary Roles
Medicinal & Culinary: Leaves and flowers are edible and have antimicrobial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties, used for teas, salves, and culinary spice. Pest Repellent: Deer-resistant and mosquito-repellent qualities.
Ground Cover/Mulch: Spreads by rhizomes and forms clumps, helping to cover soil and suppress weeds when planted densely or used as chop-and-drop material.
Internal Uses (Infusions/Teas):
Respiratory: Soothes coughs, sore throats, colds, and congestion, acting as an expectorant.
Digestive: Helps with indigestion, stomachaches, and gas (carminative).
Fever: Can help reduce low fevers (febrifuge).
Nervous System: Calms anxiety, racing thoughts, and overstimulation, supporting the nervous system.
External Uses (Poultices/Washes/Soaks)
Skin: Treats cuts, minor infections, bug bites, and bee stings due to antiseptic and anti-inflammatory effects.
Soreness: A wash or foot soak can relieve tired muscles and sore feet.
Eyes: A wash can soothe sore eyes.
Other Uses
Spiritual: Used by some Indigenous peoples to calm anger and for spiritual cleansing by burning the leaves.
Aromatherapy: Essential oil used for bronchial complaints and relaxation.
Guild Companion Plants
Bee balm works well in a guild with other plants that complement its functions without competing for resources or being overtaken by its spreading habit.
I plant bee balm near my berry shrubs (Goji, Blueberry and everbearing strawberries) to invite in the pollinators. She pairs beautifully and synergistically with Cone flowers (Echinacea).
Fruit Trees/Shrubs
Acts as the central element (e.g., a fruit tree), benefiting directly from the increased pollination that bee balm provides.
Comfrey A deep-rooted dynamic accumulator that “mines” nutrients from deep in the soil and provides excellent nutrient-rich mulch when its leaves are cut back.
Clover A nitrogen-fixing ground cover that enriches the soil naturally, reducing the need for external fertilizers.
Yarrow / Purple Coneflower Attracts even more pollinators and beneficial insects, while also potentially serving as a dynamic accumulator and medicine.
Spring Bulbs Provides early-season pollen for insects before bee balm flowers bloom later in the summer.
Seed Propagation:
Aim to start your Bee Balm seeds inside at least 8 weeks before your estimated final frost date of the year to get a head start on growth.
Bee balm seeds benefit from a period of cold stratification (refrigerating seeds for about a month in a damp medium like a damp paper towel or soil in a plastic bag). Place seeds in a closed container and refrigerate for about a month.
Bee balm seeds are tiny, like many of their cousins in the mint family. They like to feel a little light on their seed coats before they sprout, so instead of burying them, you’ll just press seeds into the soil surface. Keep the soil moist while you’re waiting on germination (10 to 14 days).
If you’re seed starting indoors (recommended for perennial types), place just one seed per cell. Make sure to harden off seedlings started indoors before planting.
For direct sowing, it’s typically recommend to plant in groups of 3 and then thin to 1 plant every 18 inches once your seedlings are a couple inches tall. You can also just broadcast bee balm seeds in your garden if you don’t mind thinning them later.
Cultivation and harvesting details:
Bee Balm can be grown in both full sun and partial shade, but if you have a choice, choose to plant it in full sun: the more sun it gets, the better the show will be when it blooms.
You’ll want to water regularly if you’re growing bee balm from seed, until your plants get established. After that, I’d only water if your garden has gone more than a week without rain or if you notice the leaves wilting. Perennials should be able to survive with whatever rain you get after their first year of growth.
When watering, aim your water at the roots of the plant, not the foliage, to avoid spreading powdery mildew.
For foraging info read this post.
Harvesting:
Once harvested, Wild Bergamot can be processed in several ways. Drying is the most common preservation method.
How to Dry Wild Bergamot:
The goal is to remove water while preserving as many essential oils and active compounds as possible.
Drying in Hanging Bundles:
Form small, loose bundles (allows air circulation).
Tie them and hang them upside down.
Place in a dark, dry, warm (ideally below 35-40°C / 95-104°F), and very well-ventilated area (a dry attic, airy shed, dedicated drying room). Darkness protects against light degradation; dryness and ventilation prevent mould.
Drying Flat:
Strip leaves from stems and/or separate flower heads.
Spread them in a single layer on drying racks, fine screens, trays, or clean cloths. Do not overlap.
Place in the same conditions (dark, dry, warm, ventilated). This method is often faster.
When is it Dry? The herb is dry when leaves and flowers feel brittle and crumble easily between your fingers. Drying time varies from a few days to 2-3 weeks depending on conditions, quantity, and air circulation.
Other Processing Options:
Fresh Use: Immediately after harvest, leaves and flowers can be used in cooking (salads, drinks, garnishes) or fresh infusions. This is when aromas are most vibrant.
Tincture (Alcohol Extraction): For more therapeutic uses (requires specific knowledge), aerial parts (fresh or dried) are steeped in alcohol to extract active compounds.
Distillation (Essential Oil): A more complex process (usually using a still) to extract the concentrated essential oil, known for its potent properties (especially due to thymol and carvacrol). Espresso machines can be used for this purpose.
An espresso machine creates conditions similar to the conditions used in industrial essential oil extracting processes (pressurized hot water extraction at approx 90.5 to 96 degrees Celsius with water/steam at 7-15 bars of pressure).
I have used that method for extracting shikimic acid from pine needles and it works for extracting the thymol and carvacrol from bee balm as well.
Pertinent data:
Lacto-fermentation: You can crush up, bruise and ferment the foliage like you would cabbage to make sauerkraut (or suspend the leaves and blossoms in a light salt brine with a fermentation weight) and this preserves the vibrant flavor, medicinal compounds, nutrition and adds probiotics to the mix. The fermented leaves make for a lovely addition to salad dressings, wild pesto or soups.
Another option is to mix in the leaves with cabbage to make Salvadorian Curtido.
Freeze Drying: Requires an expensive machine but preserves the flavor, aroma and nutrition at peak levels for decades when stores properly.
Storing Dried Wild Bergamot: Keys to Preserving Quality
Once your Wild Bergamot is perfectly dry, proper storage is crucial to maintain its precious qualities for as long as possible.
Inadequate storage can quickly degrade its aromas and lessen its benefits.
What is the Best Way to Store Dried Wild Bergamot?
The Ideal Container: Protect from Air and Light
Material Choice : Prioritize airtight containers. Tinted glass jars are excellent as they also block light. If using clear glass jars, store them in a dark place.
Alternatives : Well-sealed metal tins or lined kraft paper bags, provided they close tightly. Avoid thin plastic bags or non-airtight containers.
Preparation : Ensure the container is clean and completely dry. Store the herb whole or slightly crumbled – whole form preserves aromas better.
The Storage Environment: Cool, Dry, and Dark
The location is as important as the container. Ideally:
Away from Light: Light degrades aromas. A closed cupboard is perfect.
Dry: Humidity softens herbs, promotes mould, and alters taste.
Cool: A stable, cool room temperature is best. Avoid spots near ovens, radiators, or on top of the fridge.
A kitchen cupboard away from heat sources or a cool, dark pantry are good choices.
How Long Does Dried Wild Bergamot Last?
Stored properly, dried Wild Bergamot retains good quality for about one year. After a year, its aromatic and medicinal intensity will likely decrease, though it may still be usable. Refresh your stock annually for maximum flavor and benefits.
Saving seeds from your plants:
To save bee balm seeds, harvest the dried, brown flower heads in late fall before they get knocked down (if you get heavy snowfall where you live) or if you do not get that much snow you can gather the seeds from the flower heads in winter (as I often do). After harvesting place them either on paper plates or in a paper bag to dry further, then shake and sift out the tiny, dark seeds, storing them in a cool, dark, dry place.
Recipe Ideas:
Wild bee balm (Monarda fistulosa) also known wild oregano, is one of the most useful wild herbs every gardener and forager in the United States and Canada should know.
Like other mints, Monarda also makes itself known in the culinary aspects of herbalism.
You can use dried bee balm anywhere you would use dried oregano, but some recipes and methods are better than others. Here’s a few ideas I’ve tried, and some that are on the list:
Add dried bergamot to all-purpose tomato or pizza sauce.
The dried leaves are great added to bread doughs a pastries.
Mixed sliced fresh leaves or flowers into potato salad.
They leaves are great chopped and used tossed with grilled vegetables like zucchini
Blanch some diced eggplant in salted water, then bake in the tomato-bergamot sauce with cheese for an excellent side dish.
Use dried bergamot, lemon zest, crushed garlic cloves and olive oil to marinate chicken, pork or fish
Fresh bergamot leaves have a strong flavor, but can be used with a little technique, see this recipe for salmoriglio sauce (picture shown below) for Alan Bergo’s favorite recipe.
Fresh scarlet beebalm leaves are wonderful with red fruit, especially raspberries and strawberries. Sprinkle a few over some macerated strawberries on top of a panna cotta, or soft cheese.
If you’re into hunting, try it in apple cider vinegar as a marinade on wild game.
The crystallized flowers can be made ahead (and stored in airtight containers) and used as decorations on cakes. Monarda sugar on scones and cookies gives them a whole new dimension.
Using your favorite recipes – try using Monarda in jellies, sorbets, and syrups. It adds a spiciness rather than mintiness.
Adding orange peels to your tea will enhance the bergamot flavor.
How to Dry Bee Balm For Culinary Use:
To dry the plant for use as a kitchen herb, harvest the whole stems of the plant, typically the tender tops. You can harvest bee balm greens when the plant is older and taller too, tying them up and hanging them to dry in the sun as illustrated below.
If I harvest young plants I put the leaves, stems in a dehydrator and dry at 100 F or on the “herb” setting for twelve hours or until the leaves are brittle and fully dried. If it’s very humid where you live, you’ll want to dry your leaves at a higher temperature (130 F) to make sure you can crumble them after drying.
Once the leaves and stems are dried, I put them in a spice jar. Finished, dried bee balm leaves can be stored in a pantry like any other herb.
It’s good to not crumble the leaves up too much before storing. Just like dried oregano, crumbling the dried herb between your fingers helps to release the thymol when you cook with it. Before adding bee balm to a dish, you’ll want to crumble it and remove any tough stems. If you want to do this in advance, you’ll want to store your dried leaves in the fridge to keep the best flavor.
Additional Bee Balm Recipe ideas:
Garden Fresh Gazpacho (with Bee Balm seasoning)
The individual petals of bee balm flowers pull out easily and can be dried to make a beautiful bright red tea. In season, the petals can also be used fresh.
Bee balm tea is a digestive aid that helps relieve nausea, upset stomach and gas.
Like most herbal teas, it takes a bit longer to steep than a standard black tea, around 15 minutes. Try 1 tablespoon of dried flower petals or 2 tablespoons of fresh petals to every cup of water. The water should be just below the boiling point because herbal flowers are a bit more delicate than teas made with roots or stems. (source)
To treat chapped, sore hands, try this Bee Balm Intensive Hand Butter from The Nerdy Farm Wife.
Sometimes, medicine tastes great! Try this easy-to-take Bee Balm Oxymel or homemade bee balm tincture.
Make some beautiful summertime cookies with this Bee Balm Cookies Recipe from Edible Wild Food.
Or make a few unique (and fancy) gifts with this homemade bee balm jelly.
Triple Bee Balm Soap (cold process)
Bee Balm Salve
Since bee balm is naturally antimicrobial, it also makes a great herbal salve. Start by making a herbal infused oil using bee balm, and then use that infused oil to make a simple salve by thickening it with beeswax. The basic ratio is 1 ounce of beeswax to 8 ounces of infused oil.
Bee Balm Herbal Steams
Not only does bee balm smell wonderful, but a herbal sachet used to make a herbal steam can help clear your nasal passages. Bee balm has a lot of thymol, the same constituent that makes thyme a natural decongestant.
Adding some of the dry herb to a bath can have the same effect.
Bee Balm Poultice
A poultice made from boiled bee balm leaves were “historically wrapped in cloth for sore eyes, headaches, muscle spasms, fungal infections, and under bandages to slow bleeding” according to the herbal academy.
Bee Balm Tincture
Since bee balm has nervine properties that help calm the nervous system, an established way to reap the benefits is as a tincture. Fill a jar with bee balm and cover with a neutral alcohol such as vodka. Store in a cool dark place for at least a month and then strain.
Bee Balm Mouth Wash
Used as a mouthwash, bee balm is a treatment for sore throats and mouth sores. The leaves were chewed on battlefields and used for this purpose. To ensure it keeps, add a bit of bee balm tincture to prevent spoilage.
This nourishing herbal soap is made with bee balm infused oil, tea & honey, naturally colored with chlorella & scented with essential oils.
Ok my friends that is all I have for you today on this wonderful plant.
I hope this will inspire you to try growing this in your garden to both nourish your local pollinators while also growing medicine and food for yourself and your loved ones.
I have a limited time offer going right now where I will send you seeds to grow this plant.
If you want seeds saved from our big plant shown at the end of this video to grow at home I am sending out seeds with each physical copy of my book or to anyone that is an annual paid subscriber to my newsletter and expresses an interest.
My book website is linked below:
https://recipesforreciprocity.com/shop/softcover/
Additional info on Bee Balm in videos:
References:
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8118672/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364592043_A_Review_on_Pharmacological_Activity_of_Monarda_fistulosa_L
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7659962/
https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Monarda+fistulosa
https://www.acornherbschool.com/bee-balm-monarda
https://www.outdoorapothecary.com/bee-balm-tea/
https://practicalselfreliance.com/using-bee-balm/
https://practicalselfreliance.com/wild-bergamot-monarda-fistulosa/
https://practicalselfreliance.com/bee-balm-tincture/
https://practicalselfreliance.com/bee-balm-oxymel/
https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_mofi.pdf
https://www.theforagerspath.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Monarda-fistulosa-Monograph-by-Ashley-Doyle.pdf
http://naeb.brit.org/uses/species/2504/
https://practicalplants.org/wiki/monarda_fistulosa/
https://foragerchef.com/bergamot-monarda-fistulosa-wild-oregano/
Bergner, Paul. Folk Remedies Database. Boulder: Bergner Communications, 2001.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Mountain West. Santa Fe: The Museum of New Mexico Press, 1979.
O’Brien, Mary and Karen Vail. Edible and Medicinal Plants of the Southern Rockies. Parker: Book Crafters, 2016.
Skenderi, Gazmend. Herbal Vade Mecum. Rutherford: Herbacy Press, 2003.
Tierra, Michael. Planetary Herbology. Twin Lakes: Lotus Press, 1992.
Tilgner, Dr. Sharol Marie. Herbal Medicine from the Heart of the Earth. Pleasant Hill: Wise Acres LLC, 2020.
https://theherbalacademy.com/benefits-of-bee-balm-monarda-fistulosa-and-m-didyma/
Foraging & Feasting: A Field Guide and Wild Food Cookbook by Dina Falconi; illustrated by Wendy Hollender
Alagawany M., Abd El-Hack M. E., Farag M. R., Gopi M., Karthik K., Malik Y. S., et al. (2017). Rosmarinic acid: modes of action, medicinal values and health benefits. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 18 (2), 1–10. 10.1017/S1466252317000081 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (2011). Botanical pharmacognosy—microscopic characterization of botanical medicines. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 735. [Google Scholar]
Asha D., Mathew L., Kalappurakkal R. (2015). Evaluation of HPTLC fingerprints of flavonoids and antioxidant activity of selected medicinal plants of Lamiaceae Family. IJPPR 7 (2), 240–245. [Google Scholar]
Aziz N., Kim M.-Y., Cho J. Y. (2018). Anti-inflammatory effects of luteolin: a review of in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies. J. Ethnopharmacology 225 (225), 342–358. 10.1016/j.jep.2018.05.019 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Banach R., Olechnowicz-Stepien W. (1986). The flavonoid fraction of some Monarda species. Herba Pol. 32 (3-4), 145–153. [Google Scholar]
Baranauskienė R., Bendžiuvienė V., Ragažinskienė O., Venskutonis P. R. (2019). Essential oil composition of five Nepeta species cultivated in Lithuania and evaluation of their bioactivities, toxicity and antioxidant potential of hydrodistillation residues. Food Chem. Toxicol. 129, 269–280. 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.039 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Benedec D., Hanganu D., Oniga I., Tiperciuc B., Olah N. K., Raita O., et al. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak J. Pharm. Sci. 28 (6), 2297–2303. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Brglez Mojzer E., Knez Hrnčič M., Škerget M., Knez Ž., Bren U. (2016). Polyphenols: extraction methods, antioxidative action, bioavailability and anticarcinogenic effects. Molecules 21 (7), 901. 10.3390/molecules21070901 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Cao H., Cheng W.-X., Li C., Pan X.-L., Xie X.-G., Li T.-H. (2005). DFT study on the antioxidant activity of rosmarinic acid. J. Mol. Struct. THEOCHEM. 719 (1–3), 177–183. 10.1016/j.theochem.2005.01.029 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
Cory H., Passarelli S., Szeto J., Tamez M., Mattei J. (2018). The role of polyphenols in human health and food systems: a mini-review. Front. Nutr. 5, 87. 10.3389/fnut.2018.00087 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Dai J., Mumper R. J. (2010). Plant phenolics: extraction, analysis and their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Molecules 15 (10), 7313–7352. 10.3390/molecules15107313 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Davies A. J., Mazza G. (1992). Separation and characterization of anthocyanins of Monarda fistulosa by high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40 (8), 1341–1345. 10.1021/jf00020a009 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
Deepika, , Singh A., Chaudhari A. K., Das S., Dubey N. K. (2020). Nanoencapsulated Monarda citriodora Cerv. ex Lag. essential oil as potential antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic agent against deterioration of stored functional foods. J. Food Sci. Technol. 57 (8), 2863–2876. 10.1007/s13197-020-04318-4 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Doklinichni doslidzhennia likarskykh zasobiv (metodychni rekomendacii) (2001). [Preclinical research of medicinal products]. Editor Stefanov O. V. Kyiv, : Ukrainian: Avicenna, 73–209. [Google Scholar]
El Tawab A. M. A., Shahin N. N., Abdel Mohsen M. M. (2014). Protective effect of Satureja montana extract on cyclophosphamide-induced testicular injury in rats. Chem. Biol. Interact. 224, 196–205. 10.1016/j.cbi.2014.11.001 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals (1986). European convention for the protection of vertebrate animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe, 53. [Google Scholar]
European Pharmacopoeia (2016). 9th Edn. Strasbourg, France. 9.0 , Available at: https://www.edqm.eu/en/european-pharmacopoeia-ph-eur-9th-edition. [Google Scholar]
Fan X., Du K., Li N., Zheng Z., Qin Y., Liu J., et al. (2018). Evaluation of anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect of luteolin in mice. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol. 37 (4), 351–364. 10.1615/JEnvironPatholToxicolOncol.2018027666 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Fraternale D., Giamperi L., Bucchini A., Ricci D., Epifano F., Burini G., et al. (2006). Chemical composition, antifungal and in vitro antioxidant properties of Monarda didyma L. essential oil. J. Essent. Oil Res. 18, 581–585. 10.1080/10412905.2006.9699174 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
Gavarić N., Kladar N., Mišan A., Nikolić A., Samojlik I., Mimica-Dukić N., et al. (2015). Postdistillation waste material of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae) as a potential source of biologically active compounds. Ind. Crops Prod. 74 (15), 457–464. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.05.070 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
Geffre C., Jacobs J., Dixson J., Bergmann D., De Cory J., Gabel M. (2011). Isolation and identification of anti-microbial compounds in Monarda fistulosa . Proc. South Dakota Acad. Sci. 90, 82. [Google Scholar]
Ghosh M., Schepetkin I. A., Özek G., Özek T., Khlebnikov A. I., Damron D. S., et al. (2020). Essential oils from Monarda fistulosa: chemical composition and activation of transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1) Channels. Molecules 25 (21), E4873. 10.3390/molecules25214873 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Gougoulias N., Mashev N. (2015). Antioxidant activity and polyphenols content of some herbal teas of Lamiaceae family from Greece and Bulgaria. Oxid. Commun. 38 (1), 25–31. [Google Scholar]
The above post was the ———— installment of a series titled Stacking Functions in the Garden, Food Forest and Medicine Cabinet : The Regenerative Way From Seed To Apothecary.
(This newsletter is a liberated zone with zero AI-generated content.)
Amazing and inspiring work, your love of the natural world shines through, a true gift, thank you
You did it again! Monarda, one of my most favorite in my yard and thanks to your awesome research I still learned more about it. Thank you for sharing, I always feel like plant people are the best at sharing their joy, plants and information.