Regenerative Ocean Gardening, Kelp Farming and Marine Permaculture
This post explores the potential of Oceanic Food Forest Design, Seaforestation and ancient regenerative mariculture technologies.
(This post serves as the 20th post which is part of the Stacking Functions in the Garden, Food Forest and Medicine Cabinet : The Regenerative Way From Seed To Apothecary series)
Permaculture Design is all about taking advantage of and aligning our energy with that edge effect. If there is one place on earth where the most layers of productive ecological edges meet one another, it is the shore of the ocean.
Regenerative farming is a food production system that leaves the ecosystem that farm resides within more alive (biodiverse, resilient and beautiful) than it was before.
For thousands of years indigenous peoples have invented ingenious, often strikingly beautiful ways to manage, enrich and harvest food from marine habitat that, in combination with their belief systems (ethnoecological worldviews), not only prevented overharvesting, but actually increased biodiversity.
Many ancient indigenous peoples living on the coastlines used a combination of patience, careful observation, ingenuity and ecological literacy to actively re-shape the ecological niche habitats of ocean shorelines (both in tidal zones, on the shoreline and within forested coastal habitat) so that biodiversity is increased in a way that provides reliable and resilience food supply for humans, while also enriching ocean and soil ecology.
Ancient clam and oyster gardens, stone “octopus houses”, regeneratively farmed seaweed/kelp beds and carefully constructed salmon spawning habitat combined with regenerative agroforestry (further inland) enabled ancient indigenous mariculturalists, horticulturalists and regenerative ocean farmers to stack functions vertically.
These highly advanced and ecologically enriching permanent food production systems (sculpted over centuries) have a history, methodology and ethnoecological foundations that are only beginning to be acknowledged by modern science as regenerative farming systems with immense potential, ingenuity and horticultural wisdom.
My Gaelic ancestors maintained oyster and dulse gardens on the rocky shores of Scotland and Ireland.
Seaweed has been a traditional foraged food in coastal Scottish communities for as long as people have inhabited the coast.
Dulse, scientifically known as Palmaria palmata, has been harvested and consumed by humans for centuries. The earliest records of dulse use date back to the ancient Celts and Vikings. These seafaring cultures recognised the value of this nutritious seaweed, incorporating it into their diets as a reliable source of vitamins and minerals.
Dulse's significance is not only evident in archaeological findings but also in historical texts and traditional medicine. In Irish and Scottish folklore, dulse was often mentioned as a powerful remedy for various ailments. It was believed to have healing properties, particularly for digestive issues and thyroid health, due to its high iodine content.
Individuals who inhabited the coastal regions of what is now Ireland and Scotland used dulse as a vital food source. They would harvest it from the rocky shores during low tide, dry it for preservation, and consume it as a snack or incorporate it into various dishes. Those who ventured on long voyages, relied on dulse as a durable and nutrient-rich food that could sustain them during their journeys across the seas.
Chreathnach, is an Irish Gaelic name identifying Palmaria palmata, known more generally as dilleasc or dillisk in Ireland and dulse in the UK and elsewhere
The Gaels have used Chreathnach (seaweed or kelp) for many purposes, including:
Food: Kelp was a source of food during the Irish famine, and was boiled to make soup.
Fertilizer: Kelp was used to fertilize land, especially for cabbage and potatoes.
Medicine: Kelp was used as a medicine for humans.
Animal food: Kelp was used as food for animals.
Winter supplies: Kelp was dried and used for winter supplies.
The Irish would harvest kelp in the winter, wading into the cold ocean to cut and process the plants. The location of a family's kelp harvest was a closely guarded secret.
Indigenous peoples have long practiced gathering and farming seaweed, and their knowledge can help make seaweed farming more regenerative:
Tsimshian
The Tsimshian people of northwestern British Columbia call the month of May "Ha'lilaxsila'ask," which translates to "the time for picking seaweed".
Gitga'at
The Gitga'at people of Hartley Bay, British Columbia would harvested seaweed to enrich soil inland for crops and moved along the coast enriching large plots seasonally.
Heiltsuk
The Heiltsuk Nation of British Columbia traditionally only harvest part of each kelp plant, and only harvest large plants. Research has shown that this method allows the kelp to grow back more quickly and withstand harvesting.
Pacific Northwest
Kelp forests provide habitat and food for a variety of marine beings that have sustained indigenous lifeways for generations. Bull kelp was especially important for traditional subsistence knowledge and technology.
Shinnecock
Shinnecock kelp farmers now use pipes wrapped in fibers and string to unfurl kelp around lines of rope anchored to the bay bottom (a form of multi-layered 3 dimensional ocean farming).
diagram showing one form of 3d regenerative ocean farming setup, for more info : https://nesawg.org/news/ocean-farming-and-new-blue-green-economy-interview-bren-smith-greenwave
Ancient indigenous mariculture practices include Clam Gardens, Oyster Gardens, Anthropogenic salmon egg hatching habitat (Salmon egg nurseries created in stream/river beds), Herring Egg Gardens, oceanic aquaculture (using man made multigenerationally maintained coastal rock enclosed ponds to trap, raise, and harvest ocean fish) which are underwater farms that Indigenous peoples have built and maintained for thousands of years:
These underwater farms which people have built and cared for over thousands of years add another dimensional of potential for co-creating abundance for humans while also increasing biodiversity if you live on the coast.
For example, people in the Pacific Northwest region built rock walls at the shoreline, creating the perfect conditions for clams to grow big and fast with the coming and going of the tide. It’s an example of how, working with nature, people could ensure they’d have plenty of food without damaging the environment.
Construction
Clam gardens are built by constructing rock walls at the low-tide line. The walls are typically 40 centimeters to 1.5 meters high.
Purpose
The walls trap sediment, which creates habitat for shellfish like butter clams and littleneck clams. The trapped sediment also:
Reduces the slope of the beach
Creates cooler temperatures in the summer and warmer temperatures in the winter
Benefits
Clam gardens provide food security and are a culmination of environmental knowledge. They can also:
Revitalize the environment and cultural traditions (serving as Biocultural Refugium)
Act as a buffer against extreme temperatures
Provide opportunities for sharing stories, language, and spiritual ties to the place
Clam gardens date back at least 3,500 years. However, colonization and industrialization have led to a significant decline in these practices. Today, Indigenous communities in Washington state and British Columbia are working to restore these gardens
The more I learn about the extremely advanced mariculture, regenerative ocean gardening and agroforestry practices of the coastal people’s of Turtle Island the more I feel hopeful about the future and humbled by the amount of wisdom those that came before us have to offer in addressing the challenges we face today in food security and decentralizing food production to increase food and health Sovereignty.
Just imagine if people who are stewarding ocean coastlines chose to use regenerative shellfish farming, kelp farming, tidal pool gardening, regenerative salmon mariculture practices and then combined them with food forest design further inland and 3D (vertical regenerative ocean farming) further out in the water!?
Currently about 40% of the world’s population resides within 100 kilometers from the coast. If even ten percent of those people were to take action to either engage in regenerative ocean farming and/or to take action to support those that are (through buying regeneratively farmed ocean based foods, it would create a massive shift in the ecology, food sovereignty and resilience of coastal communities.
Can you imagine the abundance and explosion of biodiversity those farming systems would create!? Kelp to feed people, animals and soil organisms inland, shellfish and fish to feed humans and a multistoried forest habitat feeding humans while providing habitat for endangered winged and four legged beings.
Such are the blessings we are offered when we combine regenerative farming with the animistic, reciprocal/”honorable harvest” ethnobotanical ethos of ancient indigenous oceanic farming methods and the edge effect/stacking functions methodology of permaculture design.
Here are a few pages from “Medicine Wheel for the Planet: A Journey toward Personal and Ecological Healing” by Dr. Jennifer Grenz
Where she offers some information about the ancient clam gardens, salmon habitat enrichment practices and horticultural practices of the coastal indigenous people of the region of Turtle Island now called “british columbia” by some. She shares about discovering the clam gardens and talks about how gift economics played a central role in relations between indigenous peoples of the coast and how they connected with the peoples of further inland.
The part I find to be so fascinating, empowering and inspiring is when she talks about how when someone from a particular tribe was going out to start a family and live in a new location their mother would gather medicinal tree, shrub and herb seeds so they could create their own gardens with the food and medicine plants from home at the location of their new dwelling and not only that, but they would carry Salmon eggs of several different species, in birch bark containers, from the rivers of their homeland, and then create ideal habitat in the stream or river at their child’s new location, and place the salmon eggs in carefully constructed nursery habitats! I cannot get over the genius and multiple vectored regenerative ripple effects of such an amazing way to help their children set up on a new plot of land over in the next valley. Imagine these multiple species of salmon, hatching in new streams they were perhaps not present in before and now they will journey down to the ocean, gather ocean minerals in their bones as adults, and then return to that same stream or river when they go to spawn!
Salmon come back to the stream where they were 'born' because they 'know' it is a good place to spawn; they won't waste time looking for a stream with good habitat and other salmon. Scientists believe that salmon navigate by using the earth's magnetic field like a compass.
Salmon use a combination of senses and other cues to navigate back to their birthplace, including:
Earth's magnetic field
Salmon use the Earth's magnetic field like a compass to find their way home. They imprint on the magnetic field at the mouth of their natal river when they are young.
Sense of smell
Salmon develop a "smell memory bank" while migrating to the ocean as young fish. They use their sense of smell to locate the exact stream of their birth.
Other cues
Salmon also use other cues to navigate, such as temperature, tides, and the solar/lunar cycle.
Lateral line
Salmon have a sensory organ called the lateral line that runs down the side of their body. This organ can detect vibrations, electrical current, and magnetic variation in the water.
Salmon are anadromous, meaning they migrate between freshwater and the ocean. They are born in freshwater, migrate to the ocean to feed and grow, and then return to freshwater to spawn.
Thus, through the act of carrying those salmon eggs and creating ideal habitat for them to hatch, those people were initiating a cycle of ocean nutrients to make their way all the way up the rivers and stream back to them, offering them the opportunity to fish for meat, and the wild animals to also hunt, which inevitably deposit the rich ocean minerals from the salmon bones further inland, enriching the soil and helping the ancient trees to grow taller, larger, more resilient and able to provide even more food and medicine to future generations of humans.
There is an old Japanese proverb that states
‘ If you want to catch a fish, plant a tree’
Well, considering what we know about how salmon bones and flesh enrich forest health, it may also be true to say:
“If you want to plant a resilient food forest that can provide food for millennia near the coast, create or regenerate some salmon habitat”
The old Japanese proverb above hints at how forests and trees are innately linked to the health of marine and freshwater fish stocks, and now scientific research has supported that claim.
Katsuhiko Matsunaga is a Japanese marine chemist, who has spent his life doing research that has shed light on the biogeochemical cycles of marine and freshwater environments. Some of this research has shed light on how forests are linked to the oceans in ways our ancestors had observed but we are only now beginning to understand.
In a 2002 article, Matsunaga helped demonstrate a correlation between bioavailable iron in the marine ecosystem, and multispecies phytoplankton growth. Phytoplankton are the basis of marine food webs. They are the primary producers, turning sunlight into energy, that provides zooplankton and fish with food and energy to be passed up the food chain.
Previous research by Matsunaga suggests that the type of bioavailable iron that helps fuel this primary productivity is born from, and strongly correlated with, the forest soils found in the catchments of rivers. In laymen’s terms the humic compounds and acids that form as leaf litter decays, bind with iron in the soil and are flushed into the river, then carried out into the ocean. This delivers the necessary bioavailable iron to the oceans, which are naturally low in iron, in a form that can be used by the phytoplankton.
They use it, they grow better and thus there’s a stronger foundation to the rest of the food web. This means a healthier ecosystem and more surplus fish to be caught.
Salmon are keystone species in Building ancient and resilient Forests. Rich in nitrogen/phosphorus/calcium from the sea, the rotting salmon flesh fertilizes forest growth. Salmon promote forest health. Giant trees require nitrogen and minerals to grow massive canopies that shade the streams and absorb excessive rainfall. These help prevent flash-floods and mudslides from wiping out salmon-filled creeks. Humans that create / enrich salmon habitat are initiating and/or aligning with a syntrophic feedback loop that can have immensely regenerative potential on the scale of entire forest ecosystems.
For more info read:
“A multidecade experiment shows that fertilization by salmon carcasses enhanced tree growth in the riparian zone” :
“Fine-scale spatiotemporal influences of salmon on growth and nitrogen signatures of Sitka spruce tree rings”:
https://bmcecol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6785-13-38
“Influence of spawning salmon on tree-ring width, isotopic nitrogen, and total nitrogen in old-growth Sitka spruce from coastal British Columbia” :
“Salmon abundance and patterns of forest greenness as measured by satellite imagery”:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720319616
Riparian soil nitrogen cycling and isotopic enrichment in response to a long-term salmon carcass manipulation experiment:
And that simple but powerful act of increasing salmon spawning in a stream, resulting in predation by predators, depositing of ocean minerals inland, enriching soil and allowing trees to grow larger and live longer also has a positive feedback loop that enriches ocean life!
“Mother trees have an effect on the oceans as well, as Katsuhiko Matsunaga and his team in Japan had confirmed. The leaves, when they fall in the autumn, contain a very large, complex acid called fulvic acid. When the leaves decompose, the fulvic acid dissolves into the moisture of the soil, enabling the acid to pick up iron. This process is called chelation. The heavy, iron-containing fulvic acid is now ready to travel, leaving the home ground of the mother tree and heading for the ocean. In the ocean it drops the iron. Hungry algae, like phytoplankton, eat it, then grow and divide; they need iron to activate a body-building enzyme called nitrogenase. This set of relationships is the feeding foundation of the ocean This is what feeds the fish and keeps the mammals of the sea, like the whale and the otter healthy.”
― Diana Beresford-Kroeger, To Speak for the Trees: My Life's Journey from Ancient Celtic Wisdom to a Healing Vision of the Forest
For more info read:
“Why Fish Need Trees and Trees Need Fish”
https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=407
and “How healthy forests create healthy rivers and seas”
https://www.9trees.org/9trees-blog/trees-support-rivers-and-seas
“Salmon build forests” :
That is amazing knowledge we need to learn from, revitalize, support and potentiate in our designs.
Now let us journey onward to learn about regenerative ocean farming and gardening practices from other places on Earth.
Hawaiʻi has a proud history of aquaculture that begins around 1200 A.D. when Hawaiians began building four types of fishponds. Around 488 ponds are estimated to have existed prior to 1788 (DHM 1990). Ponds were managed extensively and were part of larger, integrated food production systems based on watershed management (ahupua`a). The ahupua`a system supported a population of over one million prior to Western contact.
These advanced regenerative food production systems used aquaculture (using ponds to trap, raise, and harvest ocean fish). In 1830, the Hawaiian Islands had more than 450 fishponds, and Molokai—known as ‘āina momona, or bountiful land—was the epicenter. Today, 60 half-loops of rock wall are still visible along its southern shore. As noted above, the fishponds helped to feed as many as 1 million people in the days before European colonization, not far from the 1.4 million who live here now. Today, however, Hawaii imports more than 85 percent of its food, including 50 percent of its seafood.
This legacy continues today with the restoration of ancient pond infrastructure and revival of aquaculture production in the ponds. These historic and cultural treasures serve as a persistent reminder of aquaculture’s potential in the islands and challenge modern aquaculture practitioners, given that the ponds that existed prior to colonization produced an estimated 2 million pounds of fish annually (Kikuchi 1973, Costa-Pierce 1987), far more than modern aquaculture practices produce today.
For over 400 years, Native Hawaiians maintained a loko iʻa kalo, a fishpond used to raise both fish and taro. Research suggests it may have produced up to 300 pounds of fish per acre and 12,000 pounds of taro, a culturally important root vegetable. This Native Hawaiian practice helped to create an estuary that provided a home for rare birds and nursery grounds for marine fish. It also absorbed much of the sediment flowing downhill from the mountains, protecting coral reefs offshore. Working in remarkable symmetry with nature, Native Hawaiians’ traditional mauka-to-makai (mountain-to-sea) land management techniques ensured the health of the environment and the people who depended on it.
In the South Pacific, the Mãori also cultivated clams, other shellfish and seaweed both by seeding new areas with clams or pieces of seaweed and by moving rocks around to create better habitat.
In other tropical regions the Yapese people constructed and maintained hundreds of tidal traps and weirs made from stone and wood on the islands of Yap. Yap is situated within the Federated States of Micronesia (also referred to as Remote Oceania) and is comprised of three high volcanic islands, Maap, Rumung, and Marbaa, and a number of outer islands and atolls (Jeffery and PItmag 2010). An extensive survey of fish traps on Yap documented over 800 on mainland Yap (Falanruw and Falanruw 2003), although more have been found since 1996 when the study was conducted (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). Similar traps to the those built by the Yapese were also found on other Micronesian islands such as Palau, Lukunor and Nanoluk, Ifaluk, Ponapae, the Gilberts, the Marianas, and Kapingamarangi (Kikiloi, 2003).
One of the oldest examples of aquaculture/mariculture and regenerative hydraulic engineering is in Australia. Over 30,000 years ago a lava flow cooled and Gunditjmara people chose to use that as the foundation to create a system of channels, developed into weirs, dams and traps for fish and eels.
The Short-finned eels (Anguilla australis) and the Long-finned eels (Anguilla reinhardtii) that these people were (and are) stewarding, creating habitat for and farming regeneratively are born in the ocean, and so this is a form of regenerative ocean mariculture as in a similar fashion to the indigenous modified salmon habitats of Turtle Island, these regenerative farming systems also invite beings that carry ocean minerals to offer their many gifts to the land.
The extensive network of canals, traps and weirs was once a highly productive aquaculture system constructed to trap, store and harvest eels. Today, it is recognized as one of the world's most extensive and oldest aquaculture systems.
Gunditjmara people managed the water flow from Lake Condah, creating dams and blockages to ensure the water flowed as they needed it.
The eel and fish traps supplied enough food to sustain their community all year-round so that they never had to leave and also allowed the Gunditjmara people to trade with other nations.
Gunditjmara people built stone houses and huts to assist with living permanently on the land and today there are over 200 registered and recorded stone houses.
The Budj Bim eel traps and stone houses challenge a long held belief that Aboriginal people were hunters and gatherers who lived a nomadic lifestyle across the land. It shows that they have regenerative land management practices.
The eel farms cover more than 75 square kilometres and include artificial channels and ponds for separating eels, as well as smoking trees for preserving the eels for export to other parts of Australia. Just to be clear, this industry and the complex of stone arrangements including houses began around 6,000 years ago – some would say that is before Stonehenge and the Pyramids.
The Budj Bim Cultural Landscape is located in the traditional Country of the Gunditjmara Aboriginal people in south-eastern Australia. The landscape comprises three components; Budj Bim (northern) component, Kurtonitj (central) component, and Tyrendarra (southern) component.
The Gunditjmara people have called the lands of Australia home for tens of thousands of years, from the time the now-dormant volcano of Mount Eccles was erupting to the present day.
They used the land’s natural topography and features to establish settlements and villages near natural bodies of water, with the community’s population believed to be in the thousands.
Gunditjmara Aquaculture System
Carbon dated to be around 6,600 years old, the Gunditjmara people created a complex aquaculture network where modified channels diverted water and kooyang (short-finned eel) into holding ponds. Volcanic rock was used to construct a sophisticated stone aquaculture complex of fish traps, weirs, dams, and channels.
Here, kooyang were able to grow fat and be harvested with woven baskets built from wood lattice structures. This provided a year-round food supply for the Gunditjmara people and was also important for trade.
The extraordinary network is spread around an area of about one hundred square kilometers, in the vicinity of Lake Condah. At the center of this region is the extinct Budj Bim volcano. When the Europeans arrived, it was renamed Mount Eccles, but the mountain is commonly regarded by its original Gunditjmara name.
For the Gunditjmara people, the mountain is spiritually significant. They believe that the features of the surrounding native landscape mark out the traces of the creator, Budj Bim, who emerged in the form of the volcano. The eruptions, which occurred an estimated 30,000 years ago, disrupted the drainage system of the region. This left behind a vast landscape of abundant swamps and wetlands. The increased presence of eels and fish enabled the Aboriginal people to develop into a settled society.
The aquaculture system provided an economic and social base for Gunditjmara society. This interrelationship of Gunditjmara cultural and environmental systems is documented through present-day Gunditjmara cultural knowledge, practices, material culture, research, and historical documents.
for more info: https://circularwaterstories.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Eel-aquaculture-in-Guditjmara-Country_Maria-Jose-Zuniga.pdf
Now lets adventure north to learn about the ancient coastal gardens of the Pacific Northwest and the Naw NáaGalang - or “Octopus Houses of Haida Gwaii”.
Octopus houses, Regenerative Ocean Gardens and Coastal Food Forests in Canada
In the Pacific Northwest people collected herring eggs by placing kelp fronds, fir branches or woven mats in the water as substrates when the herring were spawning. Eggs were brined or smoked to be stored and later eaten, or used for fish bait later. This practice enhanced the spawning grounds and encouraged fish to return in subsequent years, in contrast to modern fishing practices in which female fish are killed and their egg sacs are removed.
By introducing additional substrates, spawning grounds are enhanced, extended, and more likely to attract returning herring (Thornton and Moss 2020). By collecting herring eggs and allowing iteroparous adults to spawn again the following spring, herring populations are more likely to persist compared to the industrial-scale commercial practice of harvesting and killing female adults to remove their egg sacs (Shelton et al. 2014b). Other cultivation techniques include habitat conservation, selective harvesting of eggs in areas where they are unlikely to hatch, predator control, and transplantation of eggs into new habitats (Thornton et al. 2010, Thornton and Moss 2020). Indigenous oral histories across the Northeast Pacific recount transplant methods involving towing branches or kelp laden with eggs to areas where herring were not currently spawning (Gauvreau et al. 2017; Thornton 2015; Thornton and Moss 2020). Transplantation has been used in recent decades to enhance spawning areas in Tlingit territory in Southeast Alaska (Thornton and Moss 2020). In cultivating herring spawning areas with a diversity of techniques, Indigenous harvesters not only enhanced the nearshore ecosystem, but were able to ensure predictable access to an abundant source of food in particular places and at a time when other resources may be scarce. (source)
Also in the Pacific Northwest, the practice of building clam gardens goes back thousands of years. People build rock walls at the low tide line or build other rocky structures depending on the shape of the coastline, that increase the amount of sediment on a beach and provide more habitat for clams.
30,000 members of the Haida indigenous group lived in what is now British Columbia, Canada, before the Europeans colonized the Americas. Ravaged by murderous colonial thugs, their numbers fell to ~350 in 1900. Today, they make up less than half of the 4500 people who live on the Haida Gwaii islands.
By creating new habitat, modifying existing habitat or transplanting species to new areas, indigenous peoples of the pacific northwest (and many other regions) increased the biodiversity of both plants—root crops and algae—and animals (ideal species for hunting according to their traditions and traditional diets).
While I personally do not suggest hunting highly intelligent animals like octopus if you do not need to, I certainly admire the ingenuity and respect the sustainability of the ancient octopus farming techniques that did not simply exploit existing octopus populations as a food source, but actively created ideal habitat for them, attracted them, helped their numbers to increase, and then hunted/harvested them in a truly sustainably manner.
First Nations along the northwest coast of the Turtle Island created terraced estuarine root gardens where they cultivated plants including springbank clover, Pacific silverweed, Northern riceroot and Nootka lupine and also harvested the ducks and geese that fed on them. They actively enriched the soil and used digging sticks to harvest roots and tubers. Further inland, multi-layered forest gardens were cultivated to provide.
In coastal forest gardens, crabapple, hazelnut, wild cherry and plum trees provide a canopy, shielding plants such as cranberry, elderberry and hawthorn, wild ginger and wild rice root. Containing more species diversity than the surrounding conifer forests, according to the research, the intentionally planted patches continue to provide a significant habitat for birds, bears and pollinators.
“These plants never grow together in the wild. It seemed obvious that people put them there to grow all in one spot — like a garden,” says SFU ethnobiologist and archaeologist Chelsey Geralda Armstrong, lead author of a coastal food forest study, in a statement.
In their management of these ancient forest gardens, the researchers write, Indigenous peoples practiced controlled burning, coppicing (encouraging growth by cutting back trees or shrubs to ground level), fertilizing, long-distance transplanting, pruning and weeding.
They managed forest ecosystems to attract and fatten up ideal herbivore species for hunting, bringing their food to them, and when they lived on the ocean, those people often did the same thing in the tidal zones to attract ocean animals (and enrich their breeding habitat) they wanted to eat. After creating ideal habitat for these animals (such as octopus) they would ensure that a good amount of the young ones continue to live and breed, thereby ensuring a steady supply of food and increased biodiverse within their created tidal zone habitats.
The Haida not only eat the Giant Pacific octopus, Enteroctopus dofleini, they also use it as bait as they fish for halibut. To increase the availability of octopi near their settlements, they built stone octopus houses mimicking the animals’ own rocky dens in shallow water along the coast.
Traditionally, only medium sized octopi were harvested, leaving the small ones to grow and the largest ones to breed.
Based on relative sea level history for the area (Fedje and Mathewes 2005), the octopus houses likely date to within the last 2000 years. While these innovations have not been dated directly, the octopus houses at T’aanuu are presumed to be contemporaneous with recent traditional occupation of the ancestral T’aanuu Village and the current shoreline position. The K’uuna KiiGawaay (Tanu eagle) clan moved from Hlk’yah GawGa (Windy Bay) to this settlement site when they were compensated for the disappearance of the ‘Laana AwGa of the K’uuna KiiGawaay in the St’awaas Xaaydagaay’s territory (Pers comm Gitkinjuaas Charles Wesley 1918 – 2006). According to MacDonald (1983), the move to T’aanuu occurred approximately in the mid 1700s. In 1912, the renowned Canadian artist and painter, Emily Carr, witnessed octopus (devilfish) being caught in the ponds in front of T’aanuu:
“The devilfish were in the puddles around the rocks at low tide. When they saw people come, they threw their tentacles around the rocks and stuck their heads into the rocky creases.” Emily Carr, 1941 referencing her visit in 1912 (Carr 1941, Carter 2016).
Biophysical Manipulations
Naw náaGalang are circular dome shaped structures approximately one metre in diameter, made of stones piled approximately one metre high. The mounds are located within an intertidal pond area encompassed by a rock wall built between bedrock outcrops. Both the pond and octopus houses are located in the lower intertidal. Each house had stone doors that could be easily removed to collect an octopus from any point in the cavern within the mound (Fedje et al. 2010). Each stone could be removed individually, without the mound collapsing. By mimicking natural octopus dens occurring under large rocks, these structures attract octopuses who will then use them as a den. Like a giant tide pool, the rock wall constraining the pond prevents sea water from draining into the ocean on an outgoing tide.
Inspired by marine biologist Daniel Pauly, a group of indigenous knowledge holders and community members, scientists and artists led by Anne Salomon, a Simon Fraser University professor, formed the Pacific Sea Garden Collective and created an elegantly simple interactive map to share traditional ways that people interacted with the sea, hoping to inspire a more Regenerative future.
Each of the 22 points on the storymap opens to a story and photos of a place along the Pacific Rim and a specific indigenous innovation. Sometimes techniques passed from generation to generation are still being practiced today. In other cases, as stories are lost when elders die, only archaeological remains hint at past practices.
Let us now journey onward to learn about the majestic underwater forests of the ocean, and how we can lend our energy to help them regenerate, while also feeding people, building soil and healing ocean and atmospheric nutrient/elemental cycles.
Seaweed, Kelp and Seaforestation
Restoring and expanding seaweed forests across the oceans will not only bolster marine health, reverse ocean acidification, prevent further coral bleaching, increase fish harvests, and create beautiful underwater forests to swim through as a tourist attraction, those efforts can also produce an abundance of nutrient dense food and regenerative soil amendments for healing the Earth inland.
Also, forget about (the often demonized and hyper focus on) carbon, lets talk about oxygen, Every 2nd breath we takecomes from the ocean.
One out of every five breaths taken by any (and every) life form on the planet comes from a diatom. Diatoms are a kind of phytoplankton: that is, microscopic plants drifting in all bodies of water. They carry out photosynthetic processes, ultimately producing oxygen in the air we breathe.
Half of the oxygen available to us has been produced by phytoplankton – this means that every other breath comes from microscopic organisms in the ocean.
Thus, when I explore the many gifts that oceanic plants offer humans below (in the context of food, soil amendments, medicine and more, please do not forget that without healthy ocean ecosystems we would also be working a lot harder to breath and stay alive.)
Modern science tells us that kelp first appeared about 23 million years ago and grows in large dense groups forming underwater forests.
Kelp forests are one of the ocean’s most diverse eco-systems. Many fish species use kelp forests as nurseries for their young, while marine mammals like sea lions, sea otters and even grey whales use them as shelter from predators and storms. Large predatory species, such as sharks, are known to hunt in the long corridors that form in the forests.
What are Kelp Forests?
The kelp forest ecosystem is a key source of marine diversity and abundance in cold water oceans. This vibrant floating canopy delivers the sun’s energy into the marine ecosystem, gives shelter to young fish, and feeds urchins, abalone, crabs, and other marine life.
Kelp forests are shallow underwater forests made from tall brown seaweeds known as kelp. Kelps are large, fast-growing (up to 13mm a day!) seaweeds that attach to the hard ocean floor using their holdfasts (the base of the seaweed that attaches to the rock) and grow to create a tall canopy stretching to the water surface. Reaching 15m high into the water column, the tall seaweeds create a complex three-dimensional underwater habitat – a jungle that shelters many species. Light filters through the upper canopy of kelp fronds to brighten the diverse forest floor which is home to smaller seaweed and sponge gardens. Kelp forests are as diverse and productive as a tropical rainforest.
Spanning almost half of the African coastline, kelp forests occur in patches from the cold West Coast to the temperate South Coast extending more than 30 metres below the water’s surface. These incredibly productive ecosystems need cold nutrient-rich water to fuel kelp growth and maintain the underwater forest. In the Atlantic Ocean off our West Coast, upwelling systems maintain Kelp Forests, this occurs when cold nutrient-rich water rises from the deeper water to the surface. On the South Coast, productive kelp systems are maintained by nutrients being brought in seasonally from the west coast and from plant plankton (or phytoplankton) blooms.
There are complex food webs within the forest, maintained by the diversity of animals safeguarded by kelps.
Kelps are primary producers or autotrophs, meaning that they make their own food by converting sunlight into energy. The main kelp species in South Africa are the giant sea bamboo which has air-filled floats to hold the fronds in the sunlit surface water and the smaller split fan kelp. Many smaller seaweed species also grow in kelp forests thriving in the sunlit waters. Phytoplankton in the productive waters supports kelp forests, by supplying a much-needed source of food for animals or zooplankton, which in turn feeds many other animals that filter the rich surrounding waters .
Kelp is a source of income for many families on the lower end of the poverty scale. In Indonesia, for example, over 1 million people rely on seaweed farming for their livelihood.
The history of cultivating seaweeds in Korea began with Pyropia. Records before 1425 indicate that Pyropia was being processed by chopping and drying (Bae 1991, Sohn 1998) and cultivation of Pyropia started between 1623 and 1649 (Chung 1937, Bae 1991, Sohn 1996). For more than 1,700 years, haenyeo have been diving in the sea, harvesting shellfish and seaweed.
For more info read:
“The Sea Women of South Korea”
and
“Women of the Sea : Diving with the Haenyeo of Jeju”
Seaweed farming in Japan has an even longer history, Nori seaweed cultivation in Japan dates back to the 8th century. The cultivation and harvesting methods used today were developed during the Edo period (1603-1868).
Here are some milestones in the history of seaweed farming in Japan:
1670
Active seaweed cultivation began in Tokyo Bay, where farmers used bamboo branches to collect spores and move them to nutrient-rich estuaries.
1950s
Hatchery propagation of nori began after the discovery of filamentous sporophytes.
1969
Full-scale farming of kombu began in Hokkaido.
Floating-sinking method Developed around 1965, this method allowed nori to be cultivated in places other than tidal flats.
Kelp also has many other uses. It can be used in food such as Sushi (it's even found in ice-cream), as an organic fertiliser, for bio fuels, healthy omega-3 supplements and fibres for clothing.
Kelp forests are pound-for-pound among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. Unfortunately, many kelp forests have disappeared due to human coastal development and exploitative ocean industries. One study found that more than a third of the regions where kelp occurs have seen considerable loss of kelp forests since the 1960s. In Northern California, for example, 95 percent of kelp forests have died off in just the past eight years. Fortunately, individuals can have a significant impact on reviving kelp forests. Here are some examples of local efforts where individuals can make a difference:
Coastal development and landslides can cover rock reefs in muddy sediments, depriving kelp of substrate for their holdfasts to attach to. By supporting rock reef restoration efforts, such as this one in Southern California, you can restore the conditions that kelp forests need to thrive. This approach may be doubly effective since new research has shown that complex seafloor substrates can create hotspots of resilient kelp that can resist overpopulating sea urchins.
Seaforestation is a portmanteau of “sea” and “afforestation” and involves planting and restoring underwater seaweed forests. There are at least three methods of achieving this being explored. Each technique essentially starts with something like a standard kelp farm, in which the seaweeds are grown on ropes or other substrates running between buoys (see Seaweed Farming Nexus).
One possible application of this info is creating systems to emulate nature in “oceanic deserts” in order to increase food security and restore marine ecosystems. Several groups have developed a system that can moderate ocean surface temperature by restoring overturning circulation. This restores the conditions that support seaweed forests and thereby builds resilience into fisheries that provide food for burgeoning populations.
Marine permaculture uses renewable energy – such as wave-driven pumps – to restore nutrient circulation by bringing cooler water up to where it is needed to create the favorable conditions required for growth. The system also provides a submerged substrate onto which seaweed attaches. The upwelled nutrients enable growth without external inputs. Marine Permaculture thereby creates an oasis in an ocean desert with habitat and food for forage fish.
Restoring overturning circulation results in cooler waters, even in tropical climates, anticipating the need for food cultivation to be climate resilient. Multiple Permaculture enables larger open-ocean cultivation to take place. We are planning self-guided arrays using shear from mesoscale eddies. Wave and other renewable energy provides power needed for seaweed irrigation and navigational guidance. This will enable cultivation across vast regions of pelagic zones, eliminating limitations of nearshore cultivation.”
Sea Vegetable (seaweed and kelp) health benefits:
Seaweed grows along rocky shorelines around the world, but it’s most commonly eaten in Asian countries such as Japan, Korea and China. It’s extremely versatile and can be used in many dishes, including sushi rolls, soups and stews, salads, supplements and smoothies.
What’s more, seaweed is highly nutritious, so a little goes a long way. Seaweed is a rich source of several vitamins, including vitamin A (in the form of carotenoids), vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, and B vitamins. Like kale and some other leafy greens, seaweed also contains vitamin K. Seaweed is also a rich source of several minerals, including calcium, magnesium, potassium, copper, and iron. Seaweed also has a high iodine content, especially the brown-algae varieties.
1. Contains Iodine and Tyrosine, Which Support Thyroid Function: Your thyroid gland releases hormones to help control growth, energy production, reproduction and the repair of damaged cells in your body. Your thyroid relies on iodine to make hormones. Without enough iodine, you may start to experience symptoms like weight changes, fatigue or swelling of the neck over time. The recommended dietary intake (RDI) for iodine is 150 mcg per day. Seaweed has the unique ability to absorb concentrated amounts of iodine from the ocean. Its iodine content varies greatly depending on the type, where it was grown and how it was processed. In fact, one dried sheet of seaweed can contain 11–1,989% of the RDI. Below is the average iodine content of three different dried seaweeds:
Nori: 37 mcg per gram (25% of the RDI)
Wakame: 139 mcg per gram (93% of the RDI)
Kombu: 2523 mcg per gram (1,682% of the RDI)
Kelp is one of the best sources of iodine. Just one teaspoon (3.5 grams) of dried kelp could contain 59 times the RDI. Seaweed also contains an amino acid called tyrosine, which is used alongside iodine to make two key hormones that help the thyroid gland do its job properly
2. Contains a Variety of Protective Antioxidants: In addition to containing the antioxidant vitamins A, C and E, seaweed boasts a wide variety of beneficial plant compounds, including flavonoids and carotenoids. These have been shown to protect your body’s cells from free radical damage. A lot of research has focused on one particular carotenoid called fucoxanthin. It’s the main carotenoid found in brown algae, such as wakame, and it has 13.5 times the antioxidant capacity as vitamin E. Fucoxanthin has been shown to protect cell membranes better than vitamin A. While the body does not always absorb fucoxanthin well, absorption may be improved by consuming it along with fat. Nevertheless, seaweed contains a wide variety of plant compounds that work together to have strong antioxidant effects.
3. Provides Fiber and Polysaccharides That Can Support Your Gut Health: Gut bacteria play an enormous role in your health. It’s estimated that you have more bacteria cells in your body than human cells. An imbalance in these “good” and “bad” gut bacteria can lead to sickness and disease. Seaweed is an excellent source of fiber, which is known to promote gut health. It can make up about 25–75% of seaweed’s dry weight. This is higher than the fiber content of most fruits and vegetables. Fiber can resist digestion and be used as a food source for bacteria in your large intestine instead. Additionally, particular sugars found in seaweed called sulfated polysaccharides have been shown to increase the growth of “good” gut bacteria. These polysaccharides can also increase the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which provide support and nourishment to the cells lining your gut.
4. Helps With Weight Loss by Delaying Hunger: Seaweed contains a lot of fiber, which does not contain any calories. The fiber in seaweed may slow stomach emptying, too. This helps you feel fuller for longer and can delay hunger pangs. Seaweed is also considered to have anti-obesity effects. In particular, several animal studies suggest that a substance in seaweed called fucoxanthin may help reduce body fat. One animal study found that rats who consumed fucoxanthin lost weight, whereas rats who consumed the control diet did not. The results showed that fucoxanthin increased the expression of a protein that metabolizes fat in rats. Other animal studies found similar results. For example, fucoxanthin has been shown to significantly reduce blood sugar levels in rats, further aiding weight loss.
5. Reduces Heart Disease Risk: Factors that increase your risk include high cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking and being physically inactive or overweight. Interestingly, seaweed may help reduce your blood cholesterol levels. One eight-week study fed rats with high cholesterol a high-fat diet supplemented with 10% freeze-dried seaweed. It found the rats had 40% lower total cholesterol, 36% lower LDL cholesterol and 31% lower triglyceride levels. Heart disease can also be caused by excessive blood clotting. Seaweed contains carbohydrates called fucans, which may help prevent blood from clotting. In fact, one animal study found that fucans extracted from seaweed prevented blood clotting as effectively as an anti-clotting drug. Researchers are also starting to look at peptides in seaweed. Initial studies in animals indicate that these protein-like structures may block part of a pathway that increases blood pressure in your body.
6. May Help Reduce Your Risk of Type 2 Diabetes by Improving Blood Sugar Control: By the year 2040, 642 million people worldwide are expected to have type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Interestingly, seaweed has become a research focus for new ways to support people who are at risk of diabetes. An eight-week study in 60 Japanese people revealed that fucoxanthin, a substance in brown seaweed, may help improve blood sugar control. Participants received a local seaweed oil that contained either 0 mg, 1 mg or 2 mg of fucoxanthin. The study found that those who received 2 mg of fucoxanthin had improved blood sugar levels, compared to the group who received 0 mg. The study also noted additional improvements in blood sugar levels in those with a genetic disposition to insulin resistance, which usually accompanies type 2 diabetes. What’s more, another substance in seaweed called alginate prevented blood sugar spikes in animals after they were fed a high-sugar meal. It’s thought that alginate may reduce the absorption of sugar into the bloodstream. Several other animal studies have reported improved blood sugar control when seaweed extracts are added to the diet.
for more info on the health benefits of sea vegetables:
Sea weed / Kelp Recipes:
Cream of Pine and Mushroom Soup (with fermented ramp leaves, nettles and sea greens).
For more info on and pics of the ingredients that went into the soup above
Here are some full recipes from my first book Recipes For Reciprocity : The Regenerative Way From Seed To Table which contain kelp / sea weed as an ingredient:
More seaweed recipes:
Foraging for sea vegetables and ocean plants for eating and soil regeneration:
Foraging for wild sea vegetables offers a unique way to connect with coastal environments while gathering nutritious marine plants. This ancient practice combines tradition with modern culinary exploration, allowing individuals to harvest edible seaweeds and other aquatic flora directly from the shore. Wild sea vegetables are packed with minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, making them a valuable addition to a healthy diet.
If you are not growing your own kelp or seaweed and just foraging for wild seaweed, responsible and respectful harvesting is crucial for maintaining the health of coastal ecosystems. Foragers should follow honorable harvest practices, such as cutting only the tips of seaweed plants and never taking more than a quarter of any specific stand. This approach ensures regrowth and preserves the marine habitat for future generations.
Identifying edible sea vegetables can be easier for beginners compared to foraging for land plants. With proper knowledge and guidance, novice foragers can learn to recognize safe and delicious species. From the familiar nori to the lesser-known sea lettuce, the ocean offers a diverse array of edible flora waiting to be discovered and enjoyed.
For more info:
“Learn about Canadian Sea Vegetables”
https://www.wildfoods.ca/blogs/main/learn-about-canadian-sea-vegetables
An Introduction to Seaweed Foraging (UK based):
https://gallowaywildfoods.com/an-introduction-to-seaweed-foraging/
“Seaweeds are a vast and relatively untapped wild food resource. They are highly nutritious, easy to find, surprisingly tasty and hugely rewarding if you know which to pick and what to do with them. Better still, there are no toxic seaweeds that can be picked on foot in UK waters, so nervous foragers can relax and explore their flavours without fear of poisoning, provided they stay aware of pollution risks.”
“Foraging Wild Ingredients: Sea Vegetables”
https://www.madogoutdoors.com/post/foraging-wild-ingredients-sea-vegetables
“Edible Seaweed of the Pacific Northwest”
https://www.northernbushcraft.com/seaweed/
“Sea Vegetables: Harvesting Gifts from the Ocean”
https://veggiegardeningtips.com/sea-vegetables-harvesting-gifts-from-the-ocean/
“A Friendly Introduction to the Interesting Clans of Sea Vegetables (with info on)
Alaria, Desmarestia, Egregia, Fucus, Laminaria, Nereocystis, Palmeria, Porphyra, and Ulva were the official names of a few seaweeds that are more commonly known as Winged Kelp, Color Changer or Acid Kelp, Feather Boa or Boa Kelp, Bladderwrack or Stirfry Weed, Kombu, Bullwhip Kelp, Dulse, Nori or Laver, and Sea Lettuce.”
“When the tide is out, the table is set”
Seaweeds are a vast and relatively untapped wild food resource. They are highly nutritious, easy to find, surprisingly tasty and hugely rewarding if you know which to pick and what to do with them. Better still, there are no toxic seaweeds that can be picked on foot in most waters, so nervous foragers can relax and explore their flavours without fear of poisoning, provided they stay aware of pollution risks.
Regenerative ocean farming focuses on biodiversity, with multiple varieties of seaweeds and shellfish. “With over 10,000 edible plants in the ocean, we’ve barely scratched the surface,” says Smith. Seaweeds contain vital nutrients and vitamins like vitamin C, protein, and Omega-3s. In addition, pressure on fish stocks can be lessened by eating a variety of marine resources. Seaweed also assists in carbon sequestering from both the ocean and atmosphere, while shellfish consume nitrogen and phosphorus-containing plankton and detritus, playing an integral role in nutrient cycling of coastal habitats. These farms also provide habitat for wild ocean species.
Worldwide, 80% of fish stocks are “fully exploited or overexploited” with rampant Illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing further stressing these resources. Around 97% of the world’s fishers reside in developing countries, with fishing as their major source of food and income. Women make up most of the workforce involved in secondary marine-related activities, like processing (United Nations, 2017). These declining fish populations pose a real threat to job security. The vision of regenerative ocean farming provides fishers and processors with a transition to a more sustainable economy and food production system.
Production wise, one acre of vertical underwater gardens is able to grow between 10-30 tons of sea vegetables and 250,000 shellfish each year. Relative to other marine and land-based food systems, start-up costs are minimal, with a low debt to income ratio. “Anybody with 20 acres and a boat and $30,000 can start their farm and be up and growing the first year. The key to replication is designing around simplicity, not complexity,” explains Bren Smith. In terms of income stability and resiliency, Bren Smith has shown that his farm is “able to net up to $200,000-$300,000 per farm and employ up to 10 people, and that’s just on the farm, that doesn’t count the processing centers.” Farm plans have remained open source and assessable to all.
(source)
For more info, check out the following links:
Cultivating Food Sovereignty Through Regenerative Ocean Farming:
https://www.yesmagazine.org/environment/2021/10/08/regenerative-ocean-farming-native-food
“Kelp Reforestation: Why we all need to kelp out”
https://12tides.com/blogs/news/kelp-reforestation-why-we-all-need-to-kelp-out
“How Planting Giant Kelp Forests Can Save the Planet”
https://magazine.urth.co/articles/giant-kelp-forests
“Scaling up Kelp Forest Restoration”:
https://www.mossy.earth/projects/kelp-nursery
Kelp Cultivation Handbook:
https://restorationfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Binder2_PSRF-Kelp-Manual.pdf
Kelp Farming Manual A Guide to the Processes, Techniques, and Equipment for Farming Kelp in New England Waters:
https://maineaqua.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/OceanApproved_KelpManualLowRez.pdf
Seeding the Kelp Farm:
https://seagrovekelp.com/seeding-the-kelp-farm/
“A Native Perspective on Regenerative Ocean Farming”
https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/dune-lankard
“Kelp Farming Is Reviving an Ancient Practice”
https://reasonstobecheerful.world/regenerative-kelp-farming-new-york/
“New Replicable Kelp Nursery Design Drops on Ocean Farming Hub”
https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/new-nursery-designs-drop-on-hub
“Regenerative Ocean Farming”
https://www.regenerativefarmersofamerica.com/what-is-regenerative-ocean-farming
Seaweed in the garden, oceanic permaculture farming and other sea based regenerative info:
“Regenerative Seawater Agriculture with Neal Spackman | R-FUTURE 2022”
“How Do You Grow Dulse?” (including: Growing Dulse: A Gardener's Guide)
https://taim.io/plants/how-do-you-grow-dulse
Seaweed (either dried granular pieces or liquefied seaweed) contains over 70 trace minerals.
The gentle N-P-K values make this natural, whole-food, broad-spectrum fertilizer essential to plants and the soil food web.
More importantly, it is an excellent source of cytokinins and auxins, two essential plant growth hormones. It also contains vitamins, natural chelating agents, and amino acids.
Cytokinins improve soil tilth, regulate cell division and cell wall formation, increase photosynthesis and chlorophyll production, improve root and shoot growth, and delay senescence in the fall (when plants prepare for winter, dropping leaves, losing colour, etc.).
Auxins regulate cell elongation and mainly stimulate adventitious rooting, and promote fruit development.
If you live near the ocean, this is one of the least expensive, most highly effective fertilizers out there. Liquid seaweed fertilizer is a staple in any regenerative foliar feed and soil management program.
It is especially useful when seeding and propagating, dividing, and transplanting. Nursery owners and growers of wheatgrass and microgreens swear by kelp.
Regenerative Mariculture and Regenerative Coral Reef Gardening:
Rock-walled clam gardens are an aquaculture technology used by Indigenous peoples along the North American west coast to enhance the production of clams and other marine species. Photo by Keith Holmes
Clam
Clam’ is the common name given to several kinds of bivalve mollusc. They live as infauna, meaning they spend most of their lives halfway buried in the seafloor or riverbeds.
How are traditional clam gardens built?
Recently, scientists have identified ancient clam garden remains stretching over several kilometres in the Northwest Pacific coast, some dating back to at least 3,500 years.2
These gardens were constructed by building rock-walled terraces on gently sloping intertidal zones, at the lowest low tide line. The rock walls retained sediment, creating a flat, stable environment for clams to settle and grow.
The maintenance of these clam gardens involved careful, ongoing management to ensure their productivity and ecological balance, such as optimising sediment quality and temperature.3
The techniques varied amongst Indigenous groups: some added shell-rich sediments and gravel to help build up terraces, while others removed shells post-harvest to maintain balance. Additionally, clearing large rocks from beach sections, increasing sandy areas for clams, and thinning out clams reduce competition and help younger clams thrive.4
The Kwakwaka’wakw nation also employed a unique method of aerating the ground by inserting and wiggling a wooden stick, which helped clams grow bigger and faster.5 These methods, passed down through generations, are an example of achieving food security a measure of the availability of food and individuals' ability to access it through regenerative ecosystem management.
Besides food security and cultural value, restoring these gardens can positively impact the local ecology. Clams, like other bivalves, are filter feeders. This means they can filter chemicals and particles from the surrounding water. By doing so, the clams improve the local water quality, which benefits other organisms that inhabit the area.
Bivalves also play a crucial role in nutrient cycles, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus, by removing them from the water. Some nutrients are incorporated into their tissues, while the rest are buried in the surrounding sediments. Given their ability to cycle nutrients, bivalves are often used as a tool in marine restoration projects to combat eutrophication in areas with nutrient-polluted water. This ability to capture nutrients from the local environment also means that bivalves require no feed or synthetic inputs to grow, so their cultivation is one of the most environmentally friendly forms of aquaculture.6
Professor Marco Hatch is a marine ecologist at Western Washington University and a member of the Samish Indian Nation. He told FoodUnfolded, “We spend a lot of time thinking about clams in clam gardens. But I like the term sea garden(…) If you're thinking about what was there before clam gardens, it was primarily a two-dimensional habitat. When we build a clam garden, all these rocks piled up at the low tide line create a lot of space between the rocks. And one of my former students worked to see what other types of traditional foods also live within that rock wall. There are things growing there like red sea cucumber, red rock crab, cockles, large snails, limpets, and seaweeds, showing that the rock wall itself is also a major source of food.” This contrasts with other industrial/exploitative types of seafood farming practices, which often lead to a decrease in local biodiversity.9
Indigenous groups are at the forefront of this movement, utilising traditional knowledge to restore and maintain these rock-walled terraces. For example, the Hul’q’umi’num’ and W̱SÁNEĆ Coast Salish communities are pioneering the first experimental clam garden restoration in the Southern Gulf Islands of British Columbia, working in partnership with Parks Canada. In Washington State, the Swinomish Indian Tribal Community is leading the first modern clam garden construction
Professor Marco Hatch adds, “When you're working on a clam garden that you know might be thousands of years old, and you're rekindling that connection between the community and that ancestral feature, it's hard not to think about the magnitude of that. And to think about how many generations have touched those rocks that have done exactly what we're doing today. And so, then you're looking backwards, reactivating something that's been practised and managed continuously for thousands of years but also looking forward, trying to ensure that it's practised continuously for thousands of years more. I think that is an impactful, profound thing to think about.”
Oyster Gardens:
Almost all oyster species are habitat-building bivalve molluscs. Young oysters are so small that they are part of the zooplankton community for a while, free-floating in the water column, before they preferentially settle out on adult oysters or any suitable hard substrate. Once settled, oysters fuse their shells to the underlying substrate and can therefore form dense aggregations, known as an oyster reef.
Oyster reefs provide us with a range of ecosystem services and hold both economic and environmental importance. The complex reef structure provides food and habitat for numerous marine creatures and may serve as nursery grounds for some fish species.
Oysters are filter feeders which means they filter water for nutrients and particles to feed on and grow. They are true eco-engineers as a single oyster is able to filter up to 240 litres of seawater per day. Their filtering activity improves water quality on local scales, because they remove particles from the water and deposit them on the sediment, where conditions for bacteria that break down pollutants such as nitrates are better. This results in enhanced rates of denitrification, a process in which nitrites and nitrates are transformed into inert di-nitrogen gas. This is a very important chemical process as high levels of nitrogen can be detrimental to the environment consequently leading to harmful algal blooms, depleted oxygen and fish death. By removing particles from the water column oysters can also increase light penetration to the sediment, and promote the recovery of seagrasses, another threatened and valuable coastal habitat.
In summary, oyster reefs are of great environmental importance as they can restore and “heal” parts of our damaged marine ecosystem through sediment stabilisation, nutrient cycling and sequestration and by providing a safe and nourishing habitat for other organisms while also acting as natural storm defences and shoreline protection along our coasts.
The native Irish oyster on which we focus here grows up to approx. 15cm with an age of up to 30 years while sexual maturity is reached at an age between 3-4 years.
It’s shaped round rather than oval and is relatively flat, therefore it is often referred to as ‘flat oyster’. It is easy to distinguish it from the Pacific oyster which grows bigger, deeper and is oval-shaped with spectacular ridges.
The natural habitat of O. edulis are estuaries and sea lochs as well as open coastal seas as deep as 50m depth. This species is primarily found in the subtidal zone and colonises on mixed hard substrates, in particular shell material. The range of the native oyster is pan-European which includes the northeast Atlantic from the south of Norway to the Mediterranean Sea as far as the Black Sea.
The native oyster is the only species that spawns in our temperate waters which usually happens in our summer months or for easier memory in the months without an ‘r’ (May - August). During the spawning process, the oyster’s body goes from being opaque to translucent, almost watery in appearance. During this time avoid eating native oysters as they will taste very unpleasant, highly acidic and thin.
Since the Irish rock oysters or Gigas don’t spawn in our waters (they spawn in temperature controlled tanks in commercial hatcheries and nurseries) they can be enjoyed all year round.
Once the egg of an oyster is fertilized, it begins to divide. It becomes a trochophore, with hair-like structures called cilia, to help it move in the water column and search for food. In the veliger stage, two shells develop and an organ called the velum forms, allowing for feeding and additional movement – at this point the oyster is D-shaped.
In its free swimming larval stage, the oyster develops a foot and an eye and is called a pediveliger. This is the time when it needs to look for a surface to attach to. Oysters in the wild will attach to any hard substrate, including rocks, driftwood and piers, but the ideal substrate is another oyster as this indicates that there’s enough algae and water circulation to support an oyster to adulthood. Thus, oysters often settle on top of each other to form complex oyster reefs. The unique 3-dimensional habitats created by native oysters support a higher biodiversity of species than the surrounding sediment/seabed. By providing a structure the reef is colonised by algae, tunicates, sponges, crabs, crustaceans and ascidians which all leads to increased biodiversity and fish abundance as the growing reef provides a protected nursery ground for juvenile fish, refuge from predation and a source of food.
Once the oyster sets on a substrate, it is called ‘spat’ and the process is called ‘spat fall’. Later on, it becomes a juvenile oyster, and continues to grow and remains in this stage until adulthood, when it is able to reproduce.
For mor info no Oyster gardening:
https://www.jcu.edu.au/news/releases/2023/february/citizen-scientists-tend-oyster-gardens
https://www.al.com/news/mobile/2017/12/oyster_farmers_guide_to_pier_g.html
Regenerative Coral Reef Gardening / Restoration info:
Coral reefs are the reason many of us fell in love with the ocean – jewelled arms reaching towards the surface of warm, sunlight-dappled seas, tropical fish scattered throughout… Often referred to as ‘rainforests of the sea’, the colourful ecosystems are renowned for their diversity and their ability to safeguard an incredible variety of marine species.
Coral reefs fill our oceans with captivating shapes and vibrant colours, hosting a vast array of marine life essential for the underwater ecosystem. Yet, each day, the bleaching of and other pressures on corals intensifies, posing significant threats to these vital marine environments. Coral gardening is responding by restoring corals through innovative methods.
Coral reefs are among the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. They are home to an estimated 25 percent of all marine species despite making up only 1 percent of the earth’s surface. Coral reefs are nurseries for fish, provide coastal protection from storms, and provide food for millions of people. However, they are threatened by overfishing, pollution, and coral mining. Reefs are built by corals, organisms that are sensitive to changes in their environment. A healthy coral reef can recover from damage, though large scale ecosystem changes are occurring at a rate that threatens their resilience. It is vital to protect reefs from further physical damage while improving their adaptability to anthropogenic pressures.
Using the latest techniques and methods, coral gardeners can grow and plant resilient corals to revive reef ecosystems. The aim is to expand restoration around the world and empower the local communities to become coral gardeners as part of a bluer economy.
The result is enhanced biodiversity, more reliable food supplies for locals and cleaner ocean ecosystems.
One common prerequisite for coral propagation is the establishment of nurseries that are used to generate and supply large numbers of corals that will be later outplanted onto reefs. Coral nurseries are a critical component of this process because they provide a location where corals can be propagated and grown.
Coral nurseries can be field-based (‘in situ’) or land-based (‘ex situ’). While both nursery types can generate large numbers of coral colonies, there are advantages and disadvantages to each that ultimately depend on the resources and objectives of the restoration program.
Field-based nurseries
Most coral nurseries to date are field-based, often in an area off-site from natural reefs. Advantages of these nurseries include their relatively low cost and low technology methods, allowing for less skilled or experienced personnel to be involved in maintaining them. Disadvantages are that these nurseries are more susceptible to environmental extremes and weather events.
There are two main types of structures used for field-based coral nurseries: floating and fixed structure.
Coral trees
Line Nurseries
Floating Underwater Coral Apparatus
Floating Tables
Examples of fixed structures include:
Blocks
Tables
A-frames and domes
Nurseries located on land are increasingly being used for coral gardening. Advantages of these nurseries include being sheltered from bleaching events, biological pests, and disease. Practitioners can manipulate environmental conditions to promote optimal coral survivorship and growth year-round and can regularly monitor and maintain facilities. Land-based nurseries can also facilitate methods of larval-based restoration and micro-fragmentation. Disadvantages are that these nurseries can be expensive, equipment can malfunction, and they require trained staff experienced in aquarium husbandry.
Each nursery type requires specific considerations, particularly regarding the type of structure and nursery site selection for field-based nurseries, and the special supplies, materials, and maintenance required for land-based nurseries.
For more info read: https://reefresilience.org/management-strategies/restoration/coral-populations/coral-gardening/field-based-nurseries/
For more info/ideas on regenerating coral reefs:
One thing you can do, is volunteer with a reef restoration or conservation organization. Recent research has demonstrated that damaged coral reefs can recover after restoration efforts. Volunteering can provide access to coral reef habitats. Here are some organizations:
Reef Check has a science program that trains youth and volunteers to conduct underwater research.
The Bimini Biological Field Station’s Shark Lab hires interns to live in the Bahamas for months at a time to help with research.
The Ocean Agency is relatively new. Their founder is featured in the Chasing Coral documentary, which sparked a movement.
Hawaii has extensive volunteer opportunities.
The Nature Conservancy has a coral reef campaign. Friends of the Sea has a Save the Corals campaign. Coral Reef Alliance has one too.
World Wildlife Fund’s Fight for the Reef campaign focuses on the Great Barrier Reef.
Reef Restoration Foundation works with volunteers in Australia.
The Coral Restoration Foundation is working on coral reefs in coastal U.S. waters.
https://www.patagonia.com/stories/gardening-corals-before-they-are-gone/story-79449.html
https://luxiders.com/coral-gardening-a-path-to-preserve-our-coral-reefs/
https://sevenseasmedia.org/identifying-best-coral-gardening-technique-revive-reefs/
https://www.essentialmagazine.com/how-coral-gardening-is-saving-reefs/
https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/worldwide-coral-regeneration-schemes
pertinent links/references/resorces:
https://www.milkwood.net/2015/01/22/foraging-seaweed-home-garden-use/
https://gallowaywildfoods.com/an-introduction-to-seaweed-foraging/
https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/restoring-ancient-clam-gardens-in-the-pacific-northwest
https://seatrees.org/
https://phys.org/news/2024-12-ancient-agricultural-modern-day-scarcity.html
https://www.greenwave.org/blog-who-farms-matters/dune-lankard
https://reasonstobecheerful.world/regenerative-kelp-farming-new-york/
https://grist.org/fix/arts-culture/kelp-farming-ancient-wayfaring-traditional-land-practices/
https://ocean.org/blog/a-full-year-of-growing-kelp/
https://news.mongabay.com/2022/01/by-cultivating-seaweed-indigenous-communities-restore-connection-to-the-ocean/
https://indiginews.com/features/seaweed-sovereignty-cultivating-kelp-resurgence
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story-map-tracks-indigenous-mariculture-practices-1.6365600
https://www.tea-assembly.com/issues/7/an-irish-use-of-seaweed
https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b03-029?journalCode=cjb1
https://www.tcd.ie/tceh/projects/foodsmartdublin/recipes/Sept_Oyster/HistoryEcology_oyster.php
https://www.regenerativefarmersofamerica.com/what-is-regenerative-ocean-farming
https://hakaimagazine.com/news/how-indigenous-sea-gardens-produced-massive-amounts-of-food-for-millennia/
https://www.uinr.ca/oyster-garden-6/
https://www.clamgarden.com/
https://qesclimatejustice.info.yorku.ca/research-projects/indigenous-marinescapes-and-citizen-science-enhancing-local-ecological-knowledge-of-environmental-change-in-southern-chile/
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2020/07/28/in-chile-indigenous-management-of-coastal-areas-improves-marine-conservation
https://ocean.org/blog/indigenous-clam-gardens/
https://inletkeeper.org/regenerative-ocean-farming/
https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/re-wilding-baby-salmon-according-to-indigenous-knowledge/
https://12tides.com/blogs/news/kelp-reforestation-why-we-all-need-to-kelp-out
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309596451_Ancient_clam_gardens_traditional_management_portfolios_and_the_resilience_of_coupled_human-ocean_systems
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341750343_Ancient_Anthropogenic_Clam_Gardens_of_the_Northwest_Coast_Expand_Clam_Habitat
https://theregenerators.org/the-oyster-gardener/
https://marine-aquaculture.extension.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Oyster-Gardening-for-Restoration-and-Education.pdf
https://odr.chalmers.se/items/e52668f8-b43f-4d92-b562-1a388b547640
https://www.was.org/articles/Aquaculture-in-Hawaii-Ancient-Traditions-Modern-Innovation.aspx
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/restoring-ecosystems-and-rejuvenating-native-hawaiian-traditions-maui
https://www.was.org/articles/Aquaculture-in-Hawaii-Ancient-Traditions-Modern-Innovation.aspx
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247843138_Aquaculture_in_Ancient_Hawaii
https://www.biographic.com/hawaiis-ancient-aquaculture-revival/#:~:text=Starting%20around%201200%20AD%2C%20ancient,bountiful%20land%E2%80%94was%20the%20epicenter.
Well I hope that inspires those of you out there that live near or on the ocean to imagine some ways in which you can regeneratively cultivate and/or forage for some ocean foods and use sea weed to enrich the soil in your garden (while simultaneously enriching biodiversity).
The post above was the 20th post which is part of the Stacking Functions in the Garden, Food Forest and Medicine Cabinet : The Regenerative Way From Seed To Apothecary series).
For more info:
Couple of comments:
In South and west Wales the locals collect and cook seaweed as a part of breakfast, called 'Laverbread'. It is still sold in shops and local markets.very strong iodine taste, but once you get past that it's reminiscent of spinach.
In Brittany, France, farming and harvesting seaweed is a major business, supplying seaweed derived products for many food and cosmetic producers, as well as Thalassotherapy spas. They have developed harvesting boats that have mechanised the harvesting. They say they are the largest producers in the world.
Of course, both Brittany and Wales share a Celtic culture and even language and traditions, so the farming and dietary connections are no surprise.
One additional point. The current moves to reduce methane production by dairy cows includes seaweed as a food additive.
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